The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
Chapter 5: Special Expressions of Animals
Charles Darwin
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The Dog, various expressive movements of-Cats-Horses -Ruminants Monkeys, their expression of joy and affection-Of pain-Anger- Astonishment and Terror.
The Dog. - I have already described (figs. 5 and 7) the appearance of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions, namely, with erected ears, eyes intently directed forwards, hair on the neck and back bristling, gait remarkably stiff, with the tail upright and rigid. So familiar is this appearance to us, that an angry man is sometimes said " to have his back up." Of the above points, the stiff gait and upright tail alone require further discussion. Sir C. Bell remarks [1] that, when a tiger or wolf is struck by its keeper and is suddenly roused to ferocity, " every muscle is in tension, and the limbs are in an attitude of strained exertion, prepared to spring." This tension of the muscles and consequent stiff gait may be accounted for on the principle of associated habit, for anger has continually led to fierce struggles, and consequently to all the muscles of the body having been violently exerted. There is also reason to suspect that the muscular system requires some short preparation, or some degree of innervation, before being brought into strong action. My own sensations
(116) lead me to this inference; but I cannot discover that it is a conclusion admitted by physiologists. Sir J. Paget, however, informs me that when muscles are suddenly contracted with the greatest force, without any preparation, they are liable to be ruptured, as when a man slips unexpectedly; but that this rarely occurs when an action, however violent, is deliberately performed.
With respect to the upright position of the tail, it seems to depend (but whether this is really the case I know not) on the elevator muscles being more powerful than the depressors, so that when all the muscles of the hinder part of the body are in a state of tension, the tail is raised. A dog in cheerful spirits, and trotting before his master with high, elastic steps, generally carries his tail aloft, though it is not held nearly so stiffly as when he is angered. A horse when first turned out into an open field, may be seen to trot with long elastic strides, the head and tail being held high aloft. Even cows when they frisk about from pleasure, throw up their tails in a ridiculous fashion. So it is with various animals in the Zoological Gardens. The position of the tail, however, in certain cases, is determined by special circumstances; thus as soon as a horse breaks into a gallop, at full speed, he always lowers his tail, so that as little resistance as possible may be offered to the air.
When a dog is on the point of springing on his antagonist, he utters a savage growl; the ears are pressed closely backwards, and the upper lip (fig. 14) is retracted out of the way of his teeth, especially of his canines. These movements may be observed with dogs and puppies in their play. But if a dog gets really savage in his play, his expression immediately changes. This, however, is simply due to the lips and ears being drawn back with much greater energy. If a dog only snarls at an
(117) other, the lip is generally retracted on one side alone, namely towards his enemy.
The movements of a dog whilst exhibiting affection towards his master were
described (figs. 6 and 8) in our second chapter. These consist in the head and
whole body being lowered and thrown into flexuous movements, with the tail
extended and wagged from side to side. The ears fall down and are drawn somewhat
backwards, which causes the eyelids to be elongated, and alters the
whole appearance of the face. The lips hang loosely, and the hair remains
smooth. All these movements or gestures are explicable, as I believe, from their
standing in complete antithesis to those naturally assumed by a savage dog under
a directly opposite state of mind. When a man merely speaks to, or just notices,
his dog,
(118) we see the last vestige of these movements in a slight wag of the tail, without any other movement of the body, and without even- the ears being lowered. Dogs also exhibit their affection by desiring to rub against their masters, and to be rubbed or patted by them.
Gratiolet explains the above gestures of affection in the following manner: and the reader can judge whether the explanation appears satisfactory. Speaking of animals in general, including the dog, he says, [2] "C'est toujours la partie la plus sensible de leurs corps qui recherche les caresses ou les donne. Lorsque toute la longueur des flancs et du corps est sensible, l'animal serpente et rampe sous les caresses; et ces ondulations se propageant le long des muscles analogues des segments jusqu'aux extrémités de la colonne vertébrale, la queue se ploie et s'agite." Further on, he adds, that dogs, when feeling affectionate, lower their ears in order to exclude all sounds, so that their whole attention may be concentrated on the caresses of their master!
Dogs have another and striking way of exhibiting their affection, namely, by licking the hands or faces of their masters. They sometimes lick other dogs, and then it is always their chops. I have also seen dogs licking cats with whom they were friends. This habit probably originated in the females carefully licking their puppies-the dearest object of their love-for the sake of cleansing them. They also often give their puppies, after a short absence, a few cursory licks, apparently from affection. Thus the habit will have become associated with the emotion of love, however it may afterwards be aroused. It is now so firmly inherited or innate, that it is transmitted equally to both sexes. A female terrier of mine lately had her puppies destroyed,
(119) and though at all times a very affectionate creature, I was much struck with the manner in which she then tried to satisfy her instinctive maternal love by expending it on me; and her desire to lick my hands rose to an insatiable passion.
The same principle probably explains why dogs, when feeling affectionate, like rubbing against their masters and being rubbed or patted by them, for from the nursing of their puppies, contact with a beloved object has become firmly associated in their minds with the emotion of love.
The feeling of affection of a dog towards his master is combined with a strong sense of submission, which is akin to fear. Hence dogs not only lower their bodies and crouch a little as they approach their masters, but sometimes throw themselves on the ground with their bellies upwards. This is a movement as completely opposite as is possible to any show of resistance. I formerly possessed a large dog who was not at all afraid to fight with other dogs; but a wolf-like shepherd-dog in the neighbourhood, though not ferocious and not so powerful as my dog, had a strange influence over him. When they met on the road, my dog used to run to meet him, with his tail partly tucked in between his legs and hair not erected; and then he would throw himself on the ground, belly upwards. By this action he seemed to say more plainly than by words, " Behold, I am your slave."
A pleasurable and excited state of mind, associated with affection, is exhibited by some dogs in a very peculiar manner; namely, by grinning. This was noticed long ago by Somerville, who says,
And with a courtly grin, the fawning hound
Salutes thee cow'ring, his wide op'ning nose
Upward he curls, and his large sloe-back eyes
Melt in soft blandishments, and humble joy.'The Chase, book i.
(120) Sir W. Scott's famous Scotch greyhound, Maida, had this habit, and it is common with terriers. I have also seen it in a Spitz and in a sheep-dog. Mr. Riviere, who has particularly attended to this expression, informs me that it is rarely displayed in a perfect manner, but is quite common in a lesser degree. The upper lip during the act of grinning is retracted, as in snarling, so that the canines are exposed, and the ears are drawn backwards; but the general appearance of the animal clearly shows that anger is not felt. Sir C. Bell [3] remarks " Dogs, in their expression of fondness, have a slight eversion of the lips, and grin and sniff amidst their gambols, in a way that resembles laughter." Some persons speak of the grin as a smile, but if it had been really a smile, we should see a similar, though more pronounced, movement of the lips and ears, when dogs utter their bark of joy; but this is not the case, although a bark of joy often follows a grin. On the other hand, dogs, when playing with their comrades or masters, almost always pretend to bite each other; and they then retract, though not energetically, their lips and ears. Hence I suspect that there is a tendency in some dogs, whenever they feel lively pleasure combined with affection, to act through habit and association on the same muscles, as in playfully biting each other, or their masters' hands.
I have described, in the second chapter, the gait and appearance of a dog when cheerful, and the marked antithesis presented by the same animal when dejected and disappointed, with his head, ears, body, fail, and chops drooping, and eyes dull. Under the expectation of any great pleasure, dogs bound and jump about in an extravagant manner and bark for joy. The tendency to bark under this state of mind is inherited, or runs in
(121) the breed: greyhounds rarely bark, whilst the Spitz-dog barks so incessantly on starting for a walk with his master that he becomes a nuisance.
An agony of pain is expressed by dogs in nearly the same way as by many other animals, namely, by howling, writhing, and contortions of the whole body.
Attention is shown by the head being raised, with the ears erected, and eyes
intently directed towards the object or quarter under observation. If it be a
sound and the source is not known, the head is often turned obliquely from side
to side in a most significant manner, apparently in order to judge with more
exactness from what point the sound proceeds. But I have seen a dog greatly
surprised at a new noise, turning his head to one side through habit, though he
clearly perceived the source of the noise. Dogs, as formerly remarked, when
their attention is in any way aroused, whilst watching some object, or attending
to some sound, often lift up one paw (fig. 4) and keep it doubled up, as if to
make a slow and stealthy approach.
A dog under extreme terror will throw himself down, howl, and void his
excretions; but the hair, I believe, does not become erect unless some anger is
felt. I have seen a dog much terrified at a band of musicians who were playing
loudly outside the house' with every muscle of his body trembling, with his
heart palpitating so quickly that the beats could hardly be counted, and panting
for breath with widely open mouth, in the same manner as a terrified man does.
Yet this dog had not exerted himself; he had only wandered slowly and restlessly
about the room, and the day was cold.
Even a very slight degree of fear is invariably shown by the tail being tucked in between the legs. This tucking in of the tail is accompanied by the ears being drawn backwards; but they are not pressed closely to the head,
(122) as in snarling, and they are not lowered, as when a dog is pleased or affectionate. When two young dogs chase each other in play, the one that runs away always keeps his tail tucked inwards. So it is when a dog, in the highest spirits, careers like a mad creature round and round his Piaster in circles, or in figures of eight. He then acts as if another dog were chasing him. This curious kind of play, which must be familiar to every one who has attended to dogs, is particularly apt to be excited, after the animal has been a little startled or frightened, as by his master suddenly jumping out on him in the dusk. In this case, as well as when two young dogs are chasing each other in play, it appears as if the one that runs away was afraid of the other catching him by the tail; but as far as I can find out, dogs very rarely catch each other in this manner. I asked a gentleman, who bad kept foxhounds all his life, and he applied to other experienced sportsmen, whether they had ever seen hounds thus seize a fox; but they never had. It appears that when a do, is chased, or when in danger of being struck behind, or of anything falling on him, in all these cases he wishes to withdraw as quickly as possible his whole hind-quarters, and that from some sympathy or connection between the muscles, the tail is then drawn closely inwards.
A similarly connected movement between the hindquarters and the tail may be observed in the hyaena. Mr. Bartlett informs me that when two of these animals fight together, they are mutually conscious of the wonderful power of each other's jaws, and are extremely cautious. They well know that if one of their legs were seized, the bone would instantly be crushed into ,items; hence they approach each other kneeling, with their legs turned as much as possible inwards, and with their whole bodies bowed, so as not to present any salient point; the
(123) tail at the same time being closely tucked in between the legs. In this attitude they approach each other sideways, or even partly backwards. So again with deer, several of the species, when savage and fighting, tuck in their tails. IN-lien one horse in a field tries to bite the hindquarters of another in play, or when a rough boy strikes a donkey from behind, the hind-quarters and the tail are drawn in, though it does not appear as if this were done merely to save the tail from being injured. We have also seen the reverse of these movements; for when an animal trots with high elastic steps, the tail is almost always carried aloft.
As I have said, when a dog is chased and runs away, he keeps his cars directed backwards but still open; and this is clearly done for the sake of bearing the footsteps of his pursuer. From habit the ears are often held in this same position, and the tail tucked in, when the danger is obviously in front. I have repeatedly noticed, with a timid terrier of mine, that when she is afraid of some object in front, the nature of which she perfectly knows and does not need to reconnoitre, yet she will for a long time hold her ears and tail in this position, looking the image of discomfort. Discomfort, without any fear, is similarly expressed: thus, one day I went out of doors, just at the time when this same dog knew that her dinner would be brought. I did not call her, but she wished much to accompany me, and at the same time she wished much for her dinner; and there she stood, first looking one way and then the other, with her tail tucked in and ears drawn back, presenting an unmistakable appearance of perplexed discomfort.
Almost all the expressive movements now described, with the exception of the grinning from joy, are innate or instinctive, for they are common to all the individuals, young and old,, of all the breeds. Most of them
(124) are likewise common to the aboriginal parents of the dog, namely the wolf and jackal; and some of them to other species of the same group. Tamed wolves and jackals, when caressed by their masters, jump about for joy, wag their tails, lower their ears, lick their master's hands, crouch down, and even throw themselves on the ground belly upwards .[4] I have seen a rather fox-like African jackal, from the Gaboon, depress its ears when caressed. Wolves and jackals, when frightened, certainly tuck in their tails; and a tamed jackal has been described as careering round his master in circles and figures of eight, like a dog, with his tail between his legs.
It
has been stated [5] that foxes, however tame, never display any
of the above expressive movements; but this is not strictly accurate. Many years
ago I observed in the Zoological Gardens, and recorded the fact at the time,
that a very tame English fox, when caressed by the keeper, wagged its tail,
depressed its ears, and then threw itself on the ground, belly upwards. The
black fox of North America likewise depressed its ears in a slight degree. But I
believe that foxes never lick the hands of their masters, and I have been
assured that when frightened they never tuck in their tails. If the explanation
which I have given of the expression of affection in dogs be admitted, then it
would appear that animals which have never been domesticated-namely wolves,
jackals, and even foxes-have nevertheless ac-
(125)-quired, through the principle of antithesis, certain expressive gestures for it is not probable that these animals, confined in cages, should have learnt them by imitating dogs.
Cats. -- I have already described the actions of a cat (fig. 9), when feeling savage and not terrified. She assumes a crouching attitude and occasionally protrudes her fore-feet, with the claws exserted ready for striking.
(126) The tail is extended , being curled or lashed from side to side. The hair is not erected-at least it was not so in the few cases observed by me. The ears are drawn closely backwards and the teeth are shown. Low savage growls, are uttered. We can understand why the attitude assumed by a cat when preparing to fight with another cat, or in any way greatly irritated, is so widely different from that of a dog approaching another dog with hostile intentions; for the cat uses her fore-feet for striking and this renders a crouching position convenient or necessary. She is also much more accustomed than a dog to lie concealed and suddenly spring on her prey. -No cause can be assigned with certainty for the tail being lashed or curled from side to side. This habit is common to many other animals -- for instance, to the puma, when prepared to spring; [6] but it is not common to dogs, or to foxes, as I infer from -Mr. St. John's account of a fox lying in wait and seizing a hare. We have already seen that some kinds of lizards and various snakes, when excited, rapidly vibrate the tips of their tails. It would appear as if, under strong excitement, there existed an uncontrollable desire for movement of some kind, owing to nerve-force being freely liberated from the excited sensorium; and that as the tail is left free, and as its movement does not disturb the general position of the body, it is curled or lashed about.
All the movements of a cat, when feeling affectionate, are in complete
antithesis to those just described. She now stands upright, with slightly arched
back, tail perpendicularly raised, and ears erected; and she rubs her cheeks and
flanks against her master or mistress. The desire to rub something is so strong
in cats under this state of mind, that they may often be seen rubbing
(127) themselves against the legs of chairs or tables, or against door-posts. This manner of expressing affection probably originated through association, as in the case of dogs, from the mother nursing and fondling her young; and perhaps from the young themselves loving each other and playing together. Another and very different gesture, expressive of pleasure, has already been described, namely, the curious manner in which young and even old cats, when pleased, alternately protrude their fore-feet, with separated toes, as if pushing against and sucking their mother's teats. This habit is so far analogous to that of rubbing against something, that both apparently are derived from actions performed during the nursing period. Why cats should show affection by rubbing so much more than do dogs, though the latter delight in contact with their masters, and why cats only occasionally lick the hands of their friends, whilst dogs always do so, I cannot say. Cats cleanse themselves by licking their own coats more regularly than do dogs. On the other hand, their tong-Lies seem less well fitted for the work than the longer and more flexible tongues of dogs.
Cats, when terrified, stand at full height, and arch their backs in a well-known and ridiculous fashion. They spit, hiss, or growl. The hair over the whole body, and especially on the tail, becomes erect. In the instances observed by me the basal part of the tail was held upright, the terminal part being thrown on one side; but sometimes the tail (see fig. 15) is only a little raised, and is bent almost from the base to one side. The ears are drawn back, and the teeth exposed. When two kittens are playing together, the one often thus tries to frighten the other. From what we have seen in former chapters, all the above points of expression are intelligible, except the extreme arching of the back. I am inclined to be-
(128)-lieve that, in the same manner as many birds, whilst they ruffle their feathers, spread out their wings and tail, to make themselves look as big as possible, so cats stand upright at their full height, arch their backs, often raise the basal part of the tail, and erect their hair, for the same purpose. The lynx, when attacked, is said to arch its back, and is thus figured by Brehm. But the keepers in the Zoological Gardens have never seen any tendency to this action in the larger feline animals, such as tigers, lions, &c. and these have little cause to be afraid of any other animal.
Cats use their voices much as a means of expression, and they utter, under
various emotions and desires, at least six or seven different sounds. The purr
of satisfaction, which is made during both inspiration and expiration, is one of
the most curious. The puma, cheetah, and ocelot likewise purr; but the tiger,
when pleased, " emits a peculiar short snuffle, accompanied by the closure of
the eyelids." [7]
It is said that the lion, jaguar, and leopard, do not purr.
Horses.--Horses when savage draw their ears closely back, protrude their heads, and partially uncover their incisor teeth, ready for biting. When inclined to kick behind, they generally, through habit, draw back their ears; and their eyes are turned backwards in a peculiar manner.[8] When pleased, as when some coveted food is brought to them in the stable, they raise and draw in their heads, prick their ears, and looking intently towards their friend, often whinny. Impatience is expressed by pawing the ground.
(129) The actions of a horse when much startled are highly expressive. One day my horse was much frightened at a drilling machine, covered by a tarpaulin, and lying on an open field. Ile raised his head so high, that his neck became almost perpendicular; and this he did from habit, for the machine lay on a slope below, and could not have been seen with more distinctness through the raising of the head; nor if any sound had proceeded from it, could the sound have been more distinctly heard. His eyes and ears were directed intently forwards; and I could feel through the saddle the palpitations of his heart. With red dilated nostrils he snorted violently, and whirling round, would have dashed off at full speed, had 1 not prevented him. The distension of the nostrils is not for the sake of scenting the source of danger, for when a horse smells carefully at any object and is not alarmed, he does not dilate his nostrils. Owing to the presence of a valve in the throat, a horse when panting does not breathe through his open mouth, but through his nostrils; and these consequently have become endowed with great powers of expansion. This expansion of the nostrils, as well as the snorting, and the palpitations of the heart, are actions which have become firmly associated during a long series of generations with the emotion of terror; for terror has habitually led the horse to the most violent exertion in dashing away at full speed from the cause of danger.
Ruminants.--Cattle and sheep are remarkable from displaying in so slight a degree their emotions or sensations, excepting that of extreme pain. A bull when enraged exhibits his rage only -by the manner in which he holds his lowered head, with distended nostrils, and by bellowing. He also often paws the ground; but this pawing seems quite different from that of an im
(130)-patient horse, for when the soil is loose, he throws up clouds of dust.
I believe that bulls act in this manner when irritated by flies, for the sake of
driving them away. The wilder breeds of sheep and the chamois when startled
stamp on the ground, and whistle through their noses; and this serves as a
danger-signal to their comrades. The musk-ox of the Arctic regions, when
encountered, likewise stamps on the ground.[9]
How this stamping action arose I cannot conjecture; for from inquiries which I
have made it does not appear that any of these animals fight with their
forelegs.
Some species of deer, when savage, display far more expression than do cattle,
sheep, or goats, for, as has already been stated, they draw back their ears,
grind their teeth, erect their hair, squeal, stamp on the ground, and brandish
their horns. One day in the Zoological Gardens, the Formosan deer (Cervus
pseudaxis) approached me in a curious attitude, with his muzzle raised high up,
so that the horns were pressed back on his neck; the head being held rather
obliquely. From the expression of his eye I felt sure that he was savage; he
approached slowly, and as soon as he came close to the iron bars, he did not
lower his head to butt at me, but suddenly bent it inwards, and struck his horns
with great force against the railings. Air. Bartlett informs me that some other
species of deer place themselves in the same attitude when enraged.
Monkeys.-- The various species and genera of monkeys express their feelings in many different ways; and this fact is interesting, as in some degree bearing on the question, whether the so-called races of man should be ranked as distinct species or varieties; for, as we shall
(131) see in the following chapters, the different races of man express their emotions and sensations with remarkable uniformity throughout the world. Some of the expressive actions of monkeys are interesting in another way, namely from being closely analogous to those of man. As I have had no opportunity of observing any one species of the group under all circumstances, my miscellaneous remarks will be best arranged under different states of the mind.
Pleasure, joy, affection. -- It is not possible to distinguish in monkeys, at least without more experience than I have had, the expression of pleasure or joy from that of affection. Young chimpanzees make a kind of barking noise, when pleased by the return of any one to whom they are attached. When this noise, which the keepers call a laugh, is uttered, the lips are protruded; but so they are under various other emotions. Nevertheless I could perceive that when they were pleased the form of the lips differed a little from that assumed when they were angered lf a young chimpanzee be tickled-and the armpits are particularly sensitive to tickling, as in the case of our children,-- a more decided chuckling or laughing sound is uttered; though the laughter is sometimes noiseless. The corners of the mouth are then drawn backwards; and this sometimes causes the lower eyelids to be slightly wrinkled. But this wrinkling, which is so characteristic of our own laughter, is more plainly seen in some other monkeys. The teeth in the upper jaw in the chimpanzee are not exposed when they utter their laughing noise, in which respect they differ from us. But their eyes sparkle and grow brighter, as 'Mr. W. L. Martin, [10] who has particularly attended to their expression, states.
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Young Orangs, when tickled, likewise grin and make a chuckling sound; and Mr. Martin says that their eyes grow brighter. As soon as their laughter ceases, an expression may be detected passing over their faces, which, as Mr. Wallace remarked to me, may be called a smile. I have also noticed something of the same kind with the chimpanzee. Dr. Duchenne -- and I cannot quote a better authority-informs me that he kept a very tame monkey in his house for a year; and when he gave it during meal-times some choice delicacy, he observed that the corners of its mouth were slightly raised; thus an expression of satisfaction, partaking of the nature of an incipient smile, and resembling that often seen on the face of man, could be plainly perceived in this animal.
The Cebus azarae , [11] when rejoiced at again
seeing a beloved person, utters a peculiar tittering (kichernden) sound. It also
expresses agreeable sensations, by drawing back the corners of its mouth,
without producing any sound. Rengger calls this movement laughter, but it would
be more appropriately called a smile. The form of the mouth is different when
either pain or terror is expressed, and high shrieks are Littered. Another
species of Cebus in the Zoological Gardens (C. hypoleucus)
when pleased, makes a reiterated shrill note, and likewise draws back the
corners of its mouth, apparently through the contraction of the same muscles as
with us. So does the Barbary ape (Inuus ecaudalus) to an extraordinary
degree; and I observed in this monkey that the skin of the lower eyelids then
became much wrinkled. At the same time it rapidly moved its lower jaw or lips in
a spasmodic manner, the teeth being exposed; but the noise produced -was hardly
more distinct than that which
(133) we sometimes call silent laughter. Two of the keepers affirmed that
this slight sound was the animal's laughter, and when I expressed some doubt on
this head (being at the time quite inexperienced), they made it attack or rather
threaten a hated Entellus monkey, living in the same compartment. Instantly the
whole expression of the face of the Inuus changed; the mouth was opened much
more widely, the canine teeth were more fully exposed, and a hoarse barking
noise was uttered.
The Anubis baboon (Cynocephalus anubis) was first insulted and put into
a furious rage, as was easily done, by his keeper, who then made friends with
him and shook hands. As 'the reconciliation was effected the baboon rapidly
moved up and down his jaws and lips, and looked pleased. When we laugh heartily,
a similar movement, or quiver, may be observed more or less distinctly in our
jaws; but with man the muscles of the chest are more particularly acted on,
whilst with this baboon, and with some other monkeys, it is the muscles of the
jaws and lips which are spasmodically affected.
I have already had occasion to remark on the curious manner in which two or three species of Macacus and the Cynopithecus niger draw back their ears and utter a slight jabbering noise, when they are pleased by being caressed. With the Cynopithecus (fig. 17), the corners of the mouth are at the same time drawn backwards and upwards, so that the teeth are exposed. Hence this expression would never be recognized by a stranger as one of pleasure. The crest of long hairs on the forehead is depressed, and apparently the whole skin of the head drawn backwards. The eyebrows are thus raised a little, and the eyes assume a staring appearance. The lower eyelids also become slightly wrinkled; but this wrinkling is not conspicuous, owing to the permanent transverse furrows on the face.
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Painful emotions and sensations.-- With monkeys the expression of slight pain, or of any painful emotion, such as grief, vexation, jealousy, &c., is not easily distinguished from that of moderate anger; and these states of mind readily and quickly pass into each other. Grief, however, with some species is certainly exhibited by weeping. A woman, who sold a monkey to the Zoological Society, believed to have come from Borneo (Macacus maurus or M. inornatus of Gray), said that it often cried; and Mr. Bartlett, as well as the keeper Mr. Sutton, have repeatedly seen it, when grieved, or even when much pitied, weeping so copiously that the tears rolled down its cheeks. There is, however, something strange about this ease, for two specimens subsequently kept in the Gardens, and believed to be the same species, have never been seen to weep, though they were carefully observed by the keeper and myself when much distressed and loudly screaming. Rengger states [12] that the eyes of the Cebus azarae fill with tears, but not sufficiently to overflow, when it is prevented getting some much desired object, or is much frightened. Humboldt also asserts that the eyes of the Callithrix sciureus " instantly fill with tears when it is seized with fear; " but when this pretty little monkey in the Zoological Gardens was teased, so as to cry out loudly, this did not occur. I do not, however, wish to throw the least doubt on the accuracy of Humboldt's statement.
The appearance of dejection in young orangs and chimpanzees, when out of health, is as plain and almost as pathetic as in the case of our children. This state of mind and body is shown by their listless movements, fallen countenances, dull eyes, and changed complexion.
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Anger.--This emotion is often exhibited by many kinds of monkeys, and is expressed, as Air. Martin remarks, [13] in many different ways. " Some species, when irritated, pout the lips, gaze with a fixed and savage glare on their foe, and make repeated short starts as if about to spring forward, uttering at the same time inward guttural sounds. Many display their anger by suddenly advancing, making abrupt starts, at the same time opening the mouth and pursing up the lips, so as to conceal the teeth, while the eyes are daringly fixed on the enemy, as if in savage defiance. Some again, and principally the long-tailed monkeys, or Guenons, display their teeth, and accompany their malicious grins with a sharp, abrupt, reiterated cry." Mr. Sutton confirms the statement that some species uncover their teeth when enraged, whilst others conceal them by the protrusion of their lips; and some kinds draw back their ears. The Cynopithecus niger, lately referred to, acts in this manner, at the same time depressing the crest of hair on its forehead, and showing its teeth; so that the movements of the features from anger are nearly the same as those from pleasure; and the two expressions can be distinguished only by those familiar with the animal.
Baboons often show their passion and threaten their enemies in a very odd manner, namely, by opening their mouths widely as in the act of yawning. Mr. Bartlett has often seen two baboons, when first placed in the same compartment, sitting opposite to each other and thus alternately opening their mouths; and this action seems frequently to end in a real yawn. Mr. Bartlett believes that both animals wish to show to each other that they are provided with a formidable set of teeth, as is undoubtedly the case. As I could hardly credit the
(137) reality of this yawning gesture, Mr. Bartlett insulted an old baboon and put him into a violent passion; and he almost immediately thus acted. Some species of Macacus and of Cercopithecus [14] behave in the same manner. Baboons likewise show their anger, as was observed by Brehm with those which he kept alive in Abyssinia, in another manner, namely, by striking the ground with one hand, " like an angry man striking the table with his fist." I have seen this movement with the baboons in the Zoological Gardens; but sometimes the action seems rather to represent the searching for a stone or other object in their beds of straw.
Mr. Sutton has often observed the face of the Macacus rhesus, when much enraged, growing red. As he was mentioning this to me, another monkey attacked a rhesus, and I saw its face redden as plainly as that of a man in a violent passion. In the course of a few minutes, after the battle, the face of this monkey recovered its natural tint. At the same time that the face reddened, the naked posterior part of the body, which is always red, seemed to grow still redder; but I cannot positively assert that this was the case. When the Mandrill is in any way excited, the brilliantly coloured, naked parts, of the skin are said to become still more vividly coloured.
With several species of baboons the ridge of the forehead projects much over the eyes, and is studded with a few long hairs, representing our eyebrows. These animals are always looking about them, and in order to look upwards they raise their eyebrows. They have thus, as it would appear, acquired the habit of frequently moving their eyebrows. However this may be, many kinds of monkeys, especially the baboons, when angered
(138) or in any way excited, rapidly and incessantly move their eyebrows up and down, as well as the hairy skin of their foreheads.[15] As we associate in the case of man the raising and lowering of the eyebrows with definite states of the mind, the almost incessant movement of the eyebrows by monkeys gives them a senseless expression. I once observed a man who had a trick of continually raising his eyebrows without any corresponding emotion, and this gave to him a foolish appearance; so it is with some persons who keep the corners of their mouths a little drawn backwards and upwards, as if by an incipient smile, though at the time they are not amused or pleased.
A young orang, made jealous by her keeper attending to another monkey, slightly uncovered her teeth, and, uttering a peevish noise like tish-shist, turned her back on him. Both orangs and chimpanzees, when a little more angered, protrude their lips greatly, and make a harsh barking noise. A young female chimpanzee, in a violent passion, presented a curious resemblance to a child in the same state. She screamed loudly with widely open mouth, the lips being retracted so that the teeth were fully exposed. She threw her arms wildly about, sometimes clasping them over her head. She rolled on the ground, sometimes on her back, sometimes on her belly, and bit everything within reach. A young gibbon (Hylobates syndactylus) in a passion has been described [16] as behaving in almost exactly the same manner.
The lips of young orangs and chimpanzees are protruded, sometimes to a wonderful degree, under various circumstances. They act thus, not only when slightly angered, sulky, or disappointed, but when alarmed at
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(140) anything-in one instance, at the sight of a turtle,[17] and likewise when pleased. But neither the degree of protrusion nor the shape of the mouth is exactly the same, as I believe, in all cases; and the sounds which are then uttered are different. The accompanying drawing represents a chimpanzee made sulky by an orange having been offered him, and then taken away. A similar protrusion or pouting of the lips, though to a much slighter degree, may be seen in sulky children.
Many years ago, in the Zoological Gardens, I placed a looking-glass on the floor before two young orangs, who, as far as it was known, had never before seen one. At first they gazed at their own images with the most steady surprise, and often changed their point of view. They then approached close and protruded their lips towards the image, as if to kiss it, in exactly the same manner as they had previously done towards each other, when first placed, a few days before, in the same room. They next made all sorts of grimaces, and put themselves in various attitudes before the mirror; they pressed and rubbed the surface; they placed their hands at different distances behind it; looked behind it; and finally seemed almost frightened, started a little., became cross, and refused to look any longer.
When we try to perform some little action which is difficult and requires precision, for instance, to thread a needle, we generally close our lips firmly, for the sake, I presume, of not disturbing our movements by breathing; and I noticed the same action in a young Orang. The poor little creature was sick, and was amusing itself by trying to kill the flies on the window-panes with its
(141) knuckles; this was difficult as the flies buzzed about, and at each attempt the lips were firmly compressed, and at the same time slightly protruded.
Although the countenances, and more especially the gestures, of orangs and chimpanzees are in some respects highly expressive, I doubt whether on the whole they are so expressive as those of some other kinds of monkeys. This may be attributed in part to their ears being immovable, and in part to the nakedness of their eyebrows, of which the movements are thus rendered less conspicuous. When, however, they raise their eyebrows their foreheads become, as with us, transversely wrinkled. In comparison with man, their faces are inexpressive, chiefly owing to their not frowning under any emotion of the mind-that is, as far as I have been able to observe, and I carefully attended to this point. Frowning, which is one of the most important of all the expressions in man, is due to the contraction of the corrugators by which the eyebrows are lowered and brought together, so that vertical furrows are formed on the forehead. Both the orang and chimpanzee are said [18] to possess this muscle, but it seems rarely brought into action, at least in a conspicuous manner. I made my hands into a sort of cage, and placing some tempting fruit within, allowed both a young orang and chimpanzee to try their utmost to get it out; but although they grew rather cross, they showed not a trace of a frown. Nor was there any frown when they were enraged. Twice I took two chimpanzees from their rather dark room suddenly into bright sunshine, which would certainly have caused us to frown; they blinked and winked their eyes, but only
(142) once did I see a very slight frown. On another occasion, I tickled the nose of a chimpanzee with a straw, and as it crumpled up its face, slight vertical furrows appeared between the eyebrows. 1 have never seen a frown on the forehead of the orang.
The gorilla, when enraged, is described as erecting its crest of hair, throwing down its under lip, dilating its nostrils, and uttering terrific yells. Messrs. Savage and Wyman [19] state that the scalp can be freely moved backwards and forwards, and that when the animal is excited it is strongly contracted; but I presume that they mean by this latter expression that the scalp is lowered; for they likewise speak of the young chimpanzee, when crying out, " as having the eyebrows strongly contracted." The great power of movement in the scalp of the gorilla, of many baboons and other monkeys, deserves notice in relation to the power possessed by some few men, either through reversion or persistence, of voluntarily moving their scalps. [20]
Astonishment, Terror. -- A living fresh-water turtle was placed at my request in the same compartment in the Zoological Gardens with many monkeys; and they showed unbounded astonishment, as well as some fear. This was displayed by their remaining motionless, staring intently with widely opened eyes, their eyebrows being often moved up and down. Their faces seemed somewhat lengthened. They occasionally raised themselves on their hind-legs to get a better view. They often retreated a few feet, and then turning their heads over one shoulder, again stared intently. It was curious to observe how much less afraid they were of the turtle than of a living snake which I had formerly placed in
(143) their compartment; [21] for in the course of a few
minutes some of the monkeys ventured to approach and touch the turtle. On the
other hand, some of the larger baboons were greatly terrified, and grinned as if
on the point of screaming out. When I showed a little dressed up doll to the
Cynopithecus niger, it stood motionless, stared intently with widely opened
eyes, and advanced its ears a little forwards. But when the turtle was placed in
its compartment, this monkey also moved its lips in an odd, rapid, jabbering
manner, which the keeper declared was meant to conciliate or please the turtle.
I was never able clearly to perceive that the eyebrows of astonished monkeys
were kept permanently raised, though they were frequently moved up and down.
Attention, which precedes astonishment, is expressed by man by a slight raising
of the eyebrows; and Dr. Duchenne informs me that when he gave to the monkey
formerly mentioned some quite new article of food, it elevated its eyebrows a
little, thus assuming an appearance of close attention. It then took the food in
its fingers, and, with lowered or rectilinear eyebrows, scratched, smelt, and
examined it,-- an expression of reflection being thus exhibited. Sometimes it
would throw back its head a little, and again with suddenly raised eyebrows
re-examine and finally taste the food.
In no case did any monkey keep its mouth open when it was astonished. Mr.
Sutton observed for me a young orang and chimpanzee during a considerable length
of time; and however much they were astonished, or whilst
listening intently to some strange sound, they did not keep their mouths open.
This fact is surprising, as with
(144) mankind hardly any expression is more general than a widely open mouth under the sense of astonishment. As far as I have been able to observe, monkeys breathe more freely through their nostrils than men do; and this may account for their not opening their mouths when they are astonished; for, as we shall see in a future chapter, man apparently acts in this manner when startled, at first for the sake of quickly drawing a full inspiration, and afterwards for the sake of breathing as quietly as possible.
Terror is expressed by many kinds of monkeys by the utterance of shrill screams; the lips being drawn back, so that the teeth are exposed. The hair becomes erect, especially when some anger is likewise felt. Mr. Sutton has distinctly seen the face of the Vacacus rhesus grow pale from fear. Monkeys also tremble from fear; and sometimes they void their excretions. I have seen one which, when caught, almost fainted from an excess of terror.
Sufficient facts have now been given with respect to the expressions of
various animals. lt is impossible to agree with Sir C. Bell when he says
[22]
that "the faces of animals seem chiefly capable of expressing rage and fear; "
and again, when he says that all their expressions may be referred, more or less
plainly, to their acts of volition or necessary instincts." He who will look at
a dog preparing to attack another dog or a man, and at the same animal when
caressing his master, or will watch the countenance of a monkey when insulted,
and when fondled by his keeper, will be forced to admit that the
movements of their features and their gestures are almost, as expressive as
those of man. Although no explanation
(145) can be given of some of the expressions in the lower animals, the greater number are explicable in accordance with the three principles given at the commencement of the first chapter
